Jammu and Kashmir
• Earlier Jammu and Kashmir had a special status under Article 370 of Indian Constitution. However, despite it, Jammu & Kashmir experienced violence, cross-border terrorism, and political instability with internal and external ramifications. It resulted in loss of many lives including that of innocent civilians, security personnel and militants.
• Jammu and Kashmir comprises of three social and political regions — Jammu, Kashmir & Ladakh.
• Jammu region is a mix of foothills and plains. This is predominantly inhabited by Hindus, Muslims, Sikhs & people of other denominations reside in this region.
• Kashmir region mainly comprises Kashmir valley. This is inhabited mostly by Kashmiri Muslims with remaining being Hindus, Sikhs, Buddhists & others.
• Ladakh region is mainly mountainous. It has a very little population which is almost equally divided between Buddhists and Muslims.
• Before 1947, Jammu & Kashmir [J&K] was a Princely State. Its ruler, Maharaja Hari Singh did not want to merge either with India or Pakistan but to have an independent status for his State.
• Pakistani leaders thought that Kashmir region ‘belonged’ to Pakistan since majority population of State was Muslim.
• But this is not how people of state themselves saw it, they thought of themselves as Kashmiris above all. This issue of regional aspiration is called Kashmiriyat.
• popular Movement in State, led by Sheikh Abdullah of National Conference, wanted to get rid of Maharaja but was against joining Pakistan.
• In October 1947, Pakistan sent tribal infiltrators from its side to capture Kashmir. This forced Maharaja to ask for Indian military help.
• India extended military support and drove back infiltrators from Kashmir valley, but only after Maharaja signed an ‘Instrument of Accession’ with Government of India.
• However, as Pakistan continued to control a sizeable part of State, issue was taken to United Nations Organisation, which in its resolution dated 21 April 1948 recommended a three-steps process to resolve issue.
• First, Pakistan had to withdraw its entire nationalities, that entered Kashmir.
• Second, India needed to progressively reduce its forces to maintain law and order.
• Third, a plebiscite was to be conducted in a free and impartial manner. However, no progress could be achieved under this resolution.
• Sheikh Abdullah took over as Prime Minister of State of J&K in March 1948 while India agreed to grant it provisional autonomy under Article 370.
• head of government in State was then known as Prime Minister.
• Pakistan sponsored a tribal invasion of State in 1947, as a consequence of which one part of State came under Pakistani control.
• India claims that this area is under illegal occupation. Pakistan describes this area as ‘Azad Kashmir’.
• Ever since 1947, Kashmir has remained a major issue of conflict between India and Pakistan.
• A change in provision of Constitution of Jammu and Kashmir was made in 1965 by which Prime Minister of State was designated as Chief Minister of State.
• Accordingly, Ghulam Mohammed Sadiq of Indian National Congress became first Chief Minister of State.
• President’s rule was imposed in June 2018 after BJP withdrew its support from Mufti government.
• On 5 August 2019, Article 370 was abolished by Jammu & Kashmir Reorganisation Act 2019, and State was constituted into two Union Territories, viz., Jammu & Kashmir and Ladakh.
• Jammu & Kashmir and Ladakh are living examples of plural society in India. Not only are there diversities of all kinds [religious, cultural, linguistic, ethnic, & tribal] but there are divergent political and developmental aspirations, which have been sought to be achieved by latest Act.
Punjab
• Punjab had to wait till 1966 for creation of a Punjabi-speaking State.
• Akali Dal, which was formed in 1920 as political wing of Sikhs, had led movement for formation of a ‘Punjabi Suba’.
• Sikhs were now a majority in truncated State of Punjab.
• After reorganisation, Akalis came to power in 1967 and then in 1977. On both occasions, it was a coalition government.
• During 1970s a section of Akalis began to demand political autonomy for region. It was reflected in a resolution passed at their conference at Anandpur Sahib in 1973.
• Anandpur Sahib Resolution asserted regional autonomy and wanted to redefine Centre-State relationship in country.
• resolution spoke of aspirations of Sikh qaum [community or nation] and declared its goal as attaining bolbala [dominance or hegemony] of Sikhs.
• resolution was a plea for strengthening federalism, but it could be interpreted as a plea for a separate Sikh nation.
• Resolution had a limited appeal among Sikh masses. A few years later, after Akali Government had been dismissed in 1980, Akali Dal launched a movement on question of distribution of water between Punjab and its neighbouring States.
• A section of religious leaders raised question of autonomous Sikh identity. more extreme elements started advocating secession from India and creation of ‘Khalistan’.
• Soon, leadership of movement passed from moderate Akalis to extremist elements and took form of armed insurgency.
• These militants made their headquarters inside Sikh holy shrine, Golden Temple in Amritsar, and turned it into an armed fortress.
• In June 1984, Government of India carried out ‘Operation Blue Star’, a code name for army action in Golden Temple.
• In this operation, Government could successfully flush out militants, but it damaged historic temple and deeply hurt sentiments of Sikhs.
• Prime Minister Indira Gandhi was assassinated on 31 October 1984 outside her residence by her bodyguards. Both assassins were Sikhs and wanted to take revenge for Operation Bluestar.
• In Delhi and many parts of northern India, violence broke out against Sikh community. [Twenty years later, speaking in Parliament in 2005, Prime Minister Manmohan Singh expressed regret over these killings and apologised to nation for anti-Sikh violence].
• new Prime Minister Rajiv Gandhi initiated a dialogue with moderate Akali leaders.
• In July 1985, he reached an agreement with Harchand Singh Longowal, then President of Akali Dal.
• The Rajiv Gandhi-Longowal Accord, also called the Punjab Accord, was a step toward bringing peace to Punjab. It was decided that Chandigarh would be moved to Punjab, a separate commission would be set up to settle the border dispute between Punjab and Haryana, and a tribunal would be set up to decide how the water from the Ravi-Beas River would be split between Punjab, Haryana, and Rajasthan.
• Militancy was eventually eradicated by security forces. But losses incurred by people of Punjab – Sikhs and Hindus alike were enormous. Peace returned to Punjab by middle of 1990s.
• alliance of Akali Dal [Badal] and BJP scored a major victory in 1997, in first normal elections in State in post-militancy era.
North East
• In North-East, regional aspirations reached a turning point in 1980s.
• This region now consists of seven States, referred to as ‘seven sisters.’
• region has only 4% of country’s population but about twice as much share of its area.
• A small corridor of about 22 kilometres connects region to rest of country. Otherwise, region shares boundaries with China, Myanmar, & Bangladesh and serves as India’s gateway to Southeast Asia.
• isolation of region, its complex social character, and its backwardness compared to other parts of country have all resulted in complicated set of demands from different states of North-East.
• Three issues dominate politics of North-East: demands for autonomy, movements for secession, and opposition to ‘outsiders.’
• At independence, entire region except Manipur and Tripura comprised State of Assam.
• Demands for political autonomy arose when non-Assamese felt that Assam government was imposing Assamese language on them.
• Leaders of major tribal communities wanted to separate from Assam. They formed Eastern India Tribal Union which later transformed into a more comprehensive All Party Hill Leaders Conference in 1960. They demanded a tribal state to be carved out of Assam.
• Finally, instead of one tribal state, several states got carved out of Assam. At different points in time, Central Government had to create Meghalaya, Mizoram, & Arunachal Pradesh out of Assam.
• Karbis and Dimasas have been granted autonomy under District Councils while Bodos were recently granted Autonomous Council.
• reorganisation of North-East was completed by 1972.
• large-scale migration into North-East gave rise to a special kind of problem that pitted ‘local’ communities against people who were seen as ‘outsiders’ or migrants.
• Assamese suspected that there were huge numbers of illegal Bengali Muslim settlers from Bangladesh.
• In 1979 All-Assam Students’ Union [AASU], a students’ group not affiliated with any party, led an Anti-foreigner Movement.
• Movement was against illegal migrations, domination of Bengalis and other outsiders, and against faulty voters’ registers that included names of lakhs of immigrants.
• Movement demanded that all outsiders who had entered State after 1951 should be sent back.
• Eventually, after six years of turmoil, Rajiv Gandhi-led Government entered into negotiations with AASU leaders, leading to signing of an accord in 1985.
• According to this agreement those foreigners who migrated into Assam during and after Bangladesh war and since, were to be identified and deported.